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ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ

ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵙⵖⵡⴰⵏ
ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⴽⵉⴱⵉⴷⵢⴰ
ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ
sovereign state, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ
ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵙⴳⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ, Ibero-America, Latin America, G3 Free Trade Agreement ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ5 ⵢⵓⵍⵢⵓⵣ 1811, 30 ⵎⴰⵕⵚ 1845 ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
ⵉⵙⵎꠜꠦꠘꠦꠏꠥꠄꠟꠣ ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Official nameRepública Bolivariana de Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Venezuela, la République bolivarienne du Vénézuéla ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Native labelVenezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Named afterSimón Bolívar, Venice ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Official languageⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ, Venezuelan Sign Language ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Anthemgloria al bravo pueblo ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Cultureculture of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Continentⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
CapitalCaracas ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Located in time zoneUTC−04:00, America/Caracas ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Located in or next to body of waterⴰⴳⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵟⵍⴰⵙⵉ ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Located in/on physical featureHispanic America ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
ⵉⵙⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ8°0′0″N 67°0′0″W ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Coordinates of easternmost point8°19′23″N 59°46′57″W ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Coordinates of northernmost point15°40′15″N 63°37′10″W ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Coordinates of southernmost point0°39′11″N 65°32′37″W ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Coordinates of westernmost point9°10′41″N 73°21′27″W ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Highest pointPico Bolívar ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Lowest pointLagunillas ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Basic form of governmentpresidential system, federal republic ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Office held by head of statePresident of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Head of stateNicolás Maduro, Juan Guaidó ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Office held by head of governmentPresident of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Head of governmentNicolás Maduro ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Executive bodyCabinet of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Legislative bodyNational Assembly ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Highest judicial authoritySupreme Tribunal of Justice of Venezuela, Supreme Tribunal of Justice of Venezuela in exile ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Central bankCentral Bank of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Currencysovereign bolivar ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Coextensive withAmerica/Caracas ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Driving sideright ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Electrical plug typeNEMA 1-15, NEMA 5-15 ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
ReplacesGran Colombia, República de Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⴱ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱhttps://mppre.gob.ve/ ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
HashtagVenezuela, venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Top-level Internet domain.ve ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Flagflag of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Coat of armscoat of arms of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Geography of topicgeography of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Has characteristicnot-free country ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
History of topichistory of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
‎most populous urban areaCaracas ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Economy of topiceconomy of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Demographics of topicdemographics of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Mobile country code734 ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Telephone country code+58 ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Trunk prefix0 ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Emergency phone number911, 171 ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
GS1 country code759 ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Licence plate codeYV ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Maritime identification digits775 ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Unicode character🇻🇪 ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Category for maps or plansCategory:Maps of Venezuela ⵙⵏⴼⵍ
Map

ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵓⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ: ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴱⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙⵜ. ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵜ, ⵍⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⴳⵓⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵇⴱⵍⵜ, ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉ ⴱⵉ ⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵏⵉⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴱⴰⴳⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎE ⴰⵇⴱⵍⵉ.

ⴰⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵎⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⵏⵚⵓ ⴷⵉ ⵓⵊⵉⴷⴰ [en] ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ. ⵙⵙⴽⵯⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵃⵃⴰⵔ ⴰⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴳⵓ ⴼⵉⵙⴱⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ "Veneziola" ⵏⵖ "ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ".[1] ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ Veneziola ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ Venezuela.[2]

ⵉⴽⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ ⴷⵉ ⵉⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⵓ [en], ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⴱⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⴷⴰ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ, Summa de geografía, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉ ⵉⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵍⴼⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ Veneciuela. ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ "Venezuela" ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵣⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵜ.[3]

ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ, ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ (Estado de Venezuela) ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ ⴳⵔ 1830 ⴷ 1856, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ (República de Venezuela) ⴳⵔ 1856 ⴷ 1864, ⴼⴰⴷⴷ ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ (Estados Unidos de Venezuela) ⴳⵔ 1864 ⴷ 1953, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳⵔ 1953 ⴰⵔ 1999.

ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵎⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵖⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ. ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵔⴽⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⴽⵎ 15,000 ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ. ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵎⴰ-ⵜⴰⵢⵎⴰ, ⵎⵓⵡⴰⴽⵓ, ⵉⵍ ⵊⵓⴱⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⴳⴰⴼⴰⵡⵏⴰ.[4] ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⴰⵔ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵔⵏ-ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵥⵥⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵔ, ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵓⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵀⵓⵜ.[5]

ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⴽ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵉⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ, ⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ.[6] ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵇⵇⵉ, ⵜⵉⵥⴹⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵍⴽⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵓ-ⴽⵡⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵃⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ.[7]

ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵕⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 15, ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵢⵜⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵢⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏⵉⵏ.[6] ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ: ⵉⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⴳⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ, ⵉⵔⴰⵡⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵓⴽⵡⵉⴽⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ, ⴷ ⵉⵡⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵉⵍⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ.[5] ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ caciques.[7]

ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵇⴱⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵉⵏ. ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵖⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ.[7] ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴰⵣⴰⵣⵓ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵖⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ.[6]

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⵕⴰ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴼⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ 1498, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵕⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵕⵢⴰ.[5] ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵙ[a] ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷ, ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⵥⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢ, ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ.[4]

ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵉⵣⵍⵎ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴼⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ 1498, ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⴰⵥⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵕⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵉⵍⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ.[5] ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⴳⴳⵯⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ, ⴰⵍⵓⵏⵙⵓ ⴷⵉ ⵓⵅⵉⴷⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴳⵓ ⴼⵉⵙⴱⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴳ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵎ, ⵓⵛⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵎ "Venezuela" ("ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ") ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⴰ ⴱⴷⴷⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵢⴱⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵯⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ, ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ.[7]

ⴳ 1522, ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰ, ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ.[6]. ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⵙⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵔⵓ (1527), ⵎⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵢⴱⵓ (1529) ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵙ (1567). ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵎⵎⴰⵥⵥⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵛⵛⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ.[5]

ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴷⴷⵉ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵓ. ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ, ⴰⵛⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ, ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵖⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ.[7] ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴷⵓⵙ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 16 ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵜ.[6] ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴱⵛⵛⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵉⵛⵛⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ.[5]

ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 16, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ (ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵕⵓ) ⵓⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ "ⴼⵉⵙⵍⵔ" ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⴽ ⵣⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵍⴰⵢⵏ-ⴼⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉⴳ ("ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ"), ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍ ⴹⵓⵕⴰⴹⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⴳⵔ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵏ.[7]

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 17 ⴷ 18, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ. ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵥⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵍⴰ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵇⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵅⴷⴷⴰⵎⵏ.[5] ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 18, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⴼⵍⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ. ⴳ 1777, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⴽⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⵜ, ⵜⴼⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴹⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⵓⴷ.[7]

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴷⵔⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ. ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵕⵢⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍⵜ, ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵔⴽⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏ.[6] ⵜⵉⵟⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ.[5]

ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]
El Libertador, ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ
ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ 19 ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵍ 1810, ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ Martín Tovar y Tovar

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⴼⵉⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵀⵔⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19.[7] ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵎⵏⵣⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵕⵢⵓⵍⵜ ⵎⵉⵏⵣⵓ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴽⵔⵔⴼ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ. ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ, ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴳ 1808, ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ.[5]

ⴳ 1810, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⴼ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍ ⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴹⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏⴷ VVI, ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵊⵓⵏⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴳ 5 ⵢⵓⵍⵢⵓ, 1881.[6] ⵜⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴳ 1812 ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴷⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⴷⴷⴰⵏ.[7]

ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ. ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵡⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⴳⵔⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ (ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ), ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⴼⵉ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⴼ ⵙ ⴽⴰⵕⴽⴰⵙ ⴳ 1813, ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍ ⵓⵡⵜⴰⵢ.[5] ⵜⵙⴱⵣⵣⵉⵣ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵡⵡⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵢⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵃⵉⵢⵢⵍ ⴷⴰⵖ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵊⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ.[7]

ⵜⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴳ 1816 ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵀⴰⵢⵜⵉ ⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴱⵉⵜⵢⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴷⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⴼⵉⵢⵏ.[6] ⴱⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ, ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵛⴱⴱⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⵎⵏⵏ. ⴳ 1819, ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⴱⵎⵢⴰ, ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴳⵉⵙ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.[5]

ⵉⴹⵎⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⴰⴱⵓⴱⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ 24 ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ, 1821, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⵡⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ.[7] ⵜⴷⴷⵔⴼⵉ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴼⵡⵉⵔⵜⵓ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ 1823.[5]

ⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵉⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⴷⵉ ⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛ, ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵏⵛⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴹⵓ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵍ.[6]

ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵍⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏⵜ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⴷⵉ ⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ.[5] ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⴼⵉⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵜⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵎⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.[7]

ⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵅⵓⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵢⵓ ⴱⴰⵢⵉⵣ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵖⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵢⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵔⵓ (llanero cavalry), ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ, ⵙⵎⵢⴰⴼⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴹⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ. ⴳ 1826, ⵉⵏⴷⵀ ⴱⴰⵢⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ "la cosiata" ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ.[6] ⵢⵓⵔⵎ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⴽⵉ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵎⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵜ.[5]

ⴳ 1830, ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ, ⵅⴼ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ, ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⵓⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵢⵓ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ.[7] ⵎⴽⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⵍ, ⵜⵎⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ: ⴰⴳⵏⴼⵉ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ, ⵜⵉⵚⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.[5]

ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ, ⵜⵉⵖⵡⵡⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ "caullidos" ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ.[6] ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵏ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵣⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹ ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵏ.[7]

ⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ, ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⴼⴰⴹ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵇⵀⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ.[5] ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⴳ 1854, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵏⵜ.[7]

ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵎⵕⵥⵉ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍ (1859-1863) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴹⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵣⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ.[6] ⵉⵙⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⴱⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ.[5]

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ.[7]

ⴳⵓⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴳ 1870, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵢⵓ ⴳⵓⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ, ⵉⴱⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ "ⵜⵓⵟⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⴰⵍⵜ".[5] ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⴳⵓⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵉⵛⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵙⵉⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ.[7]

ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵙⵍⵢⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.[6] ⵜⵏⴼⵍ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ, ⵜⵡⴷⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵜⵙⵙⴱⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⴼⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵀⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ.[5]

ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴳⵓⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅ ⵉⵙⴳⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ.[7] ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵏⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.[6]

ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 1887, ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵉⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ, ⴳ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵟⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ Caudillo.[5] ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1890, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵕⴰⵍ ⵅⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵢⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴷⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 1898 ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ.[7]

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⴼⴰⴹ. ⴳ 1902, ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴳⴷⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵣⴳ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴹⵃⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵎⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵍⵍⵊ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵏ.[5]

ⵉⵔⵡⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴱⵔⵢⴰⵏⵓ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ 1899, ⵉⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴽⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.[7]

ⵜⵉⴷⴽⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣⵉⵏ (1889-1935)

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴳ 1899, ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵕⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⴱⵔⵢⴰⵏⵓ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ, ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⴱⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵄⵙⴽⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ.[5] ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⵏⴷⴷⴰⵀⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ 1902-1903 ⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴽⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵡⵕⵓⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴱⵣⵣⵉⵣⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.[7]

ⵓⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴰⵡⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⵉⴱⵍⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉ. ⴳ 1908, ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵔⴰ ⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉ, ⵉⵏⴽⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵛⵔⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵥⵏ, ⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ, ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⵯⴷⵎ, ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴳ 1935.[6]

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⵏⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ. ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⴱⵏⵓ ⴰⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴼⵓ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴳⴳⵯⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵣ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.[5] ⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵣⵣⴳⵓⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ.[7]

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴽⴰ, ⵢⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ. ⵉⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ, ⵉⵍⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵥⵕⴰⴼ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ.[5] ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⴽⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵉⵍ (Shell) ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵢⵍ (Standard Oil), ⴱⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1920. [7]

ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵀⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵓⵡⵍⵍⵊ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵉ.[6] ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ.[5]

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1930, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⴼⴽⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⴳ 1935 ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴱⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ. [7]

ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ (1935-1958)

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⴳ 1935, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⵙⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ, ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵕⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵣ ⴽⵓⵏⵜⵔⵉⵔⴰⵙ, ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵢⴰⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ.[5] ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⴼⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⵉⴱⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⵉ ⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ.[7]

ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵣ ⴽⵓⵏⵜⵔⵉⵔⴰⵙ "ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⴱⵕⴰⵢⵕ" ⴳ 1936 ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⵉⵏⴰⵡⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴷⴷⴰⵎⵏ.[6] ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵍⵏ (modéré), ⵙⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵎⵎⴰⵥⵥⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴽⵏⴰ.[5]

ⴳ 1941, ⵉⵅⵍⴼ ⵉⵣⵢⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⴰ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵣ ⴽⵓⵜⵔⵉⵔⴰⵙ, ⵉⴽⵎⵎⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⵎⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴽⴼⵍ. ⵜⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ Acción Democrática (AD), ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ.[7] ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵖⴱⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴼⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.[6]

ⴳ 1945, ⵜⵏⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ[b] ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⵯⴷⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰ, ⵉⵙⵔⴽ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵊⵓⵏⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵜ-ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵕⵓⵎⵉⵍⵓ ⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵅⴼ.[5] ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⴼ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴳ 1947, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵕⵓⵎⵉⵍⵓ ⴳⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳⵓⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ.[7]

ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳⵓⵙ. ⴳ ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1948, ⵏⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵏⴷⴰⵀ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵍⵓⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⴰⵍⴷⵓ ⵛⴰⵍⴱⴰⵡⴷ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ, ⵏⴳⴳⵯⴷⵎⵏ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ, ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⴼⵙⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏⵜⵉⵡⵜ.[6] ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ, ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.[5]

ⴷⴷⵓ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ, ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵉ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ. ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙⵏⵍⴼⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ, ⵢⴰⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ[c], ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵔⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ.[7] ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⵔ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵍⵍⵄ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵎⵖⵓⵔⵏ, ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ. ⴳ 23 ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ, 1958, ⵜⵏⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⵙⴱⵣⵣⵉⵣ ⴼ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵡⵍ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ, ⵉⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴽⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ.[5]

ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉ (1958-1998)

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴽⴼ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ ⴳ 1985, ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ.[5] ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵎⵉⵍⵓ ⴱⵉⵏⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ Acción Democrática (AD). [7]

ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⴹⵎⵏⵏ ⴰⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵏⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ, AD, COPEI (ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵏ) ⴷ URD (ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ), ⵙⵏⵉⵏ "Pacto de Puntofijo" ⴳ 1958, ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵣⵔⴰⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵎⵣⵖⵏ ⴼⵅ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ.[6] ⵙⵉⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵣⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵍ.[5]

ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ 1960 ⴷ 1970, ⵜⴼⵍⵥ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵣⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ. ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴳ 1975, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴳ 1976, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA) ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ.[5] ⵉⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵜ, ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵙⵉ, ⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴼⵍⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ.[7]

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴹⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ, ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⴰⵡⵍⵍⵊ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵙⵉⵙ. ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1980, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵓⴳⵍ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⴰⴱⵣⴰⴳ (ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ) ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵉ.[5]

ⴳ 1989, ⵉⵙⵎⵀⵍ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴽⴰⵕⵍⵓⵚ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵛⵃⵕⵓⵜ[d] ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜ ⵉⵡⵚⵚⴰ ⵓⴼⵏⵉⵇ ⴰⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ [en], ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⵕⵉⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ "Caracazo", ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⴷⵔⴰⴷⵙ.[7] ⵜⴼⴹⵃ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⵔⵇ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.[6]

ⵜⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵏⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎⵏ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⴳⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ 1992 ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵏⴷⴰⵀ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵉⵍ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ-200.[5] ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ, ⵉⵔⴱⵃ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵢⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⵥⵕⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵥⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.[7] ⴳ 1994, ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵔⴰⴼⴰⵢⵉⵍ ⴽⴰⵍⴷⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ, ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ.[6]

ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ (1999-ⴷⵖⵉ)

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴳ ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1998, ⵢⵓⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ, ⵉⴼⴽ ⵉⴳⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⵉ ⴰⵥⵍⴰⴹ, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ.[5] ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⴳ 1999, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ "ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ", ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵉⵏ.[7]

ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⴼⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ.[6] ⵙ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ, ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ.[5] ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ, ⵜⴽⵔⵉ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰⵏⵉⵜ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵣⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ.[7]

ⴰⵔⴼⵓⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵣⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵎ ⴽⵓⴱⴰ, ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵍ-ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ "ALBA" (Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America).<[6] ⵜⵍⴷⵉ ⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵕⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵣⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵯⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵉⵏ.[5]

ⴳ 2002, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵓ ⵔⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ.[7] ⵉⵏⵊⵎ ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵕⵓⵥⵉ [en] ⴳ 2004, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ 2006 ⴷ 2012.[5] ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⵜ[e] ⴷ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ, ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ.[6]

ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⴰⵣⵉⵍⵜ ⴷⵉⵍⵎⴰ ⵔⵓⵙⵉⴼ, 9 ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ 2013

ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⴳ 2013, ⵢⵓⵍⵉ "ⵓⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓ" ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵏ, ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ, ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⵏⵏⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵙⵓⵍ.[5] ⵉⴽⵎⵎⵍ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ, ⴰⴱⵣⴰⴳ (ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ), ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ.[7] ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵣⵣⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⴰⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ.[6]

ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ 2015, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ. ⴳ 2017, ⵉⵙⵏⵍⵓⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢ (Constituent Assembly) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴽⴷⵉ[f] ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ.[5] ⵜⵏⴽⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ 2018, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴽⵣⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵓⵡⴰⵢⴷⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼ.[7]

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2020, ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵔⵡⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.[6] ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⵉⵜ, ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵣⴳ ⵉⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ, ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ.[5]

ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⴼⵜ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ.[8][9] ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 93% ⵣⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴳ ⵢⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⵜⴳ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ. ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 73% ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 100ⴽⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ.[10] ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ, ⵖⴰⵙ 5% ⵣⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴷⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵖⵏ. ⵙⵉⵢⵓⴷⴰⴷ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴰⵏⴰ [en] ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ, ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ.[11]. ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ Barquisimeto, Valencia, Maracay, Maracaibo, Barcelona-Puerto La Cruz, Mérida, ⴷ San Cristóbal.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ "????" ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ "????". ⵜⴰⴼ ⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ [en] ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 1.5 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ (ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 4-6% ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ) ⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ 1999.[12][13]

ⵜⴰⵢⵜⵏⵉⵜ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵔⴽⵙⵏⵉⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ 2011, ⵙⵎⴰⴳⵉⵏ 51.6% ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵎⵉⵏⵓⵔⵉ, ⵜⵙⵎⴰⴳⵉ 43.6% ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍⵏ, ⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⴰⵏⵏ (3.6%) ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ (1.2%).[14] ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ (2.6%) ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ (0.7%).[14]

ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ, 58% ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵓ, ⵉⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ (7%), ⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏⴰ (5%), ⴼⵉⵎⵓⵏ (4%), ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ.[15]

ⴷⴰ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵙ ⴷ 60.6% ⵣⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⵜ, 23% ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⴳ 16.3% ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵜ.[16]

ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 12, ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵏⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ.[17][18] ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵎⵎⴰ, ⵍⴽⵎⵏⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ, ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵏⵥⵓⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵖⵏⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ.[19]

ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ.[5] ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ "expressions" ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵛⵜⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵀⵓⵔⴰⵙ[g] ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ.[7]

ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ, ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ 1999 ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.[20] ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ 34 ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵙⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ Wayuu, Warao, Pemón, ⴷ Kariña.[21]

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⵉⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ.[6] ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ, ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵜⵇⵉⵣⵜ, ⵜⴰⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵜ (ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏⵜ).[19]

ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵍⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ.[5]

ⴰⵙⴳⴷ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵜⴳⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ 2011 ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 71% ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ 17% ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵊⵉⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵉⵏⵜⵓⴽⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ.[22]

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ "practice" ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ. ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏⵢ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⵡⴰⵏ (Fiesta de San Juan), ⵉⴷⴰⵢⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⵜⵔⴽⴰⵣⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵔⵉ (Yare) ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ María Lionza ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵊⵊⵓ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ.[5][6]

ⵜⵉⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵊⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴽⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ.[7] ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵓⴷⵓⴽⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵀⵓⴼⴰ.[23]

ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵍⵎⵉⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴱⵜ, ⴰⴳⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20.[19] ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵎⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⴰⵢⴱⵓ.[24]

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ, ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ.[25]

ⵜⴰⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵜⴳⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ. ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ 1940 ⴷ 1970, ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴱⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ.[19] ⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⵍⴱⵔⵜⵇⵉⵣ ⴷ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⵓⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵣⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵓⴹ.[7]

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵍⵓⴱⵏⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉⵙⵟⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ, ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ.[26] ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵊⵊⴰⴱⴱⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ.[19]

ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000, ⵜⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵖⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⴳⵏⵉⵏ.[27] ⴷⴰ ⴰⵖ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ UNHCR ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 7.7 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ 2024, ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ, ⵉⴽⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ, ⵜⵛⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ.[28]

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏ, ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ "Quito Process" ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵎⵎⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ.[29]

ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵖⴰⵔⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴷⴷⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.[30] ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵣⵣⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵉ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ.[31]

ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵉⴳ ⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 6 ⴷ 15, ⵎⴽⴷⴰ ⵉⴼⵕⴹ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ 1999.[32] ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ, ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵔ ⴼⴰⴱⵓⵕ.[5]

ⵜⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 95% ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ 2000 ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ UNESCO.[33] ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵉⵏⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ.[7]

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ "ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⴰⵍ", ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⵓⴼⵏ. ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵏⵚⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴽⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⴼⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵜ, ⴰⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ..[34] ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵜ ⴳ 2005, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⵍ ⵎⵉ ⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ.[35]

ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ (ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 1721), ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ|, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵓⵍⵢⴰ.[6] ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ.[7]

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2010 ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ. ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⵔⵔⵜⵏⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ, ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⴷⴰⵖⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵀⵉⴱⴱⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵜ.[36] ⴹⵕⵏ ⵜⵖⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴳⵎⵉⵜⵏ.[37] ⴰⵎ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ, ⵉⴹⵕ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵙ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ.[38]

ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⴱⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ.[5] ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⴳ, ⴰⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ.[7]

ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ, ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ "ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵜⵔⵓ" ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⴳ 2003 ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⴰ. ⵜⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ.[39] ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ, ⵜⴽⵔⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ.[40]

ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰ, ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴹ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2010 ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵙⵉ. ⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ.[41] ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵕⴰⴹ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ.[42]

ⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⴷⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵕⵢⴰ, ⵎⵉⵣⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵉⴼⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ PAHO.[43] ⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ.[44]

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵕⴱⴰⵢⵕⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴼⵉⴷ-19 ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵣ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜⵏ, ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴹⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵜ.[45] ⵓⵣⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵚⴰⵍⵉⴱ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ.[46]

ⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ: ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵓⴼⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵔⵜⵏ.[6]

ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵜⴳⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.[5] ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ 1999 ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ, ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ.[47]

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵕⵛⵛⵃ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵉ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ 2009.[48] ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵙⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵣⴳⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ.[7]

ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ

ⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.[5] ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ, ⴰⴷⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴳⴰⵔ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ, ⵙⴳ 2017, ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ.[49]

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼ, ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ, ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵥⴰⵎ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍ.[50] ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴼⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ. ⴷⴰ ⵙⴳⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵉⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⵔⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ (PSUV).[6]

ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵉⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⴱⵜ ⴱ 2010, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ (CNE).[51] ⵢⵉⴳⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⵙ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵙ ⵛⵛⵉⵍ, ⴰⵢⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ.[52]

ⵙⴳ 2019, ⵜⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ: ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ[h] ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ.[53] ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴷⵓ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 50 ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⵜ, ⵜⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ.[54]

ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ PSUV, ⴰⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵜⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ, MUD ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵉⵥⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵏ. [55]

ⵜⵉⵟⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]
ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵣⵉⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ

ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ 23 ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ.[7] ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.[5]

ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏ, ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ. ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⴳⴰⵙ.[56]

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵉⴱⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ 159,500 km² ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴰⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴷⴳⴳⵉ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ.[57] ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵏⵜ.[58]

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ.[59]

ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ. ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵅⴷⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ.[60] ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ.[61]

ⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000, ⵜⵙⵎⵀⵍ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵄⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⴹ ⴰⵔⵙⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.[62] ⵉⴹⴰⵀⵉⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ, ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍⵜ.[i][5]

ⵜⵉⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ 2017

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ 2014 ⴷ 2017, ⵜⴽⵏⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ, ⵜⵔⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ.[63] ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ Amnesty International ⴷ Human Rights watch, ⵉⵙ ⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵥⵥⴰⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵖⵉ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ.[64]

ⵣⴳ 2016, ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴹⴰⵀⵉⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵎⵎⵙⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ.[65] ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵥⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵏⴹⵕⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ, ⵙⵍⵎⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵟⵟⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.[66]

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⴰⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⵍⵎ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ.[67] ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵎⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵊⵕⴼ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ.[68]

ⵜⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵜⵏⴼⵍ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20. ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵟⵟⵉⴹ ⴰⴱⵍⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⴷⴷⵓ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⵜⵙⵏⵍⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⴷⴰⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⴳⵜⵙⴰⵏⵓⴷⵜ.[j][5] ⵉⵙⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ, ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⵉ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ.[69]

ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵏ "ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵖ (ALBA)" ⴳ 2004, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⴰ, ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵏⴽⵉⴰⵔⴰⴳⵡⴰ. ⵜⵡⴰⵜⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⵣⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵏ. [70] ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙⵖⵡⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ, ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ, ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴽⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴹⵎⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ.[71]

ⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⵏⵀⵉⴱⴱⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ. ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵡⴰⵛⵉⵏⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⴰⵙⵔⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵀⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.[72] ⵓⵔ ⵜⵓⴽⵉⵣ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⵕⵓⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⴳ 2018, ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵊⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴷⵓ.[73] en:PDVSA ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵏ OPEC, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵔⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⴱⵍⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵜ. ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵜⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ "Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)" ⴷ UNASUR.[74]

ⵣⴳ 2017, ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⵥⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⴱⵍⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵎⵖⵓⵔⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵜⴽⵎⵎⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ..[75]

ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ. ⵜⴽⵔⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ 2022 ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⴱⵍⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ.[76]

ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ (Fuerza Armada Nacional Bolivariana, FANB) ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴳⵎⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ: ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵎⴰⴹⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵍⵉⵛⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ.[77] ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵖ.[5]

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵏⴳⵯⴷⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛ, ⴷⴷⵓ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ (ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ), ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵎⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ.[78]

ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008 ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵜ-ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵄⵙⴽⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ.[79] ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵥⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⴹ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ, PSUV.[80]

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴻⵅⴷⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵉⵍⵉⵛⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⴼⴰⵕⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ 2009, ⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵔⴰⵣ, ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵅⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵥⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ, ⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏ.[81] ⴳ 2023, ⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 4 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⴹⵏ[k] ⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵢⵓⴼⴼ ⵢⵉⵣⵡⵍ ⴰⴷ.[82]

ⵜⵣⴷⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ 2014. ⵉⵛⵛ ⵓⵏⵀⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵡⴰ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵕⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵔⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ, ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ.[83]

ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ. ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⴼ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵉⵍⵜ.[84] ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⵍⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ.[85]

ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵍⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ 1999 ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⵟⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ, ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ. [7] ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴼⵜ (TSJ) ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⴷⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵉⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ. [5]

ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ, ⵜⵣⴷⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000. ⵉⵙⵎⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.[86] ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⵉⵏⵜ[l] ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ. [87]

ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ. ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵕⴹⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⴰⴷⵏ, ⴰⵣⴱⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵢⴱⵓ.[88] ⵉⴹⴽⴹ ⵓⵙⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵕⴹⵉ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ 40.4 ⵉⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵉ ⵉ ⴽⵓ 100,000 ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ 2022, ⵉⵣⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵣⴳ 80 ⵉ ⴽⵓ 100,000 ⴳ 2016, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵢⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ.[89]

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵉ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ "Operaciones de Liberación del Pueblo" (OLP).[90] ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵎ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥ.[91]

ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵀⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵍⵓⵎⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵥⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ. ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵡⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ "ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵉⵏ" (“Cartel of the Suns").[92]

ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵍⴰⵎⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵀⵔⵛⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ, ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ.[93] ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴽⵕⴹⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.[94]

ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000.[95] ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵕⵥⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵏ, ⴰⵥⵥⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ.[96]

ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⵖ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵎ, ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⴷ, ⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵇⵙⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ.[97] ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ.[98]

ⵉⵔⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ 2014. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ, ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ, ⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ (SEBIN) ⴷ Directorate General of Military Counterintelligence (DGCIM).[99] ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵏⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵕ, ⵜⵉⴽⵕⴹⵉ ⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⴽⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵣⵣⵉⵣⵣ.[100]

ⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵢⵓⴱⵓⵍⴷⵓ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵣ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵔⵉⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵜⵛⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ.[101] ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵔⵔⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵏⴳⵓⵣ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵏⴽⵛⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴽⵙⵓⵍ.[102]

ⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⵖ ⵏⵜⵜⵏⵉ. ⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ[m], ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵛⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ.[103] ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴹⴽⴰⴹ UN ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 7 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⴳⵏ 7 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ 2015.[104]

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴽⴰⴹ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵏⴰⴽⴰⵕ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⴽⴽⵙ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ, ⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ.[105] ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⴳ 2017.[106]

ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⵟⵟⴼ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⴼ, ⴷⵔⵓⵖ, ⴽⵔⴰⵢⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵚⵏⵏⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⵓⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ.[107] ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵍⵎⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼⵜ, ⴰⵃⵡⵡⵙ, ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ (ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ) ⴷ ⵜⴽⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ.[108]

ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ PDVSA ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴽⴰⵛⴰⴼⵏ ⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵢⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵍⵓⴳⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ.[109] ⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ, ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.[110]

ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ exchange ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⴷⴰⴼ.[111]

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵣⴹⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ.[112]

ⵉⵊⵕⴼ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵛⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ.[113]

ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ. ⴳ 2024, ⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⵜ.[114] ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵙⵎⵀⵍ ⵉⵍⵎⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵉⵏⵣⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵚⵕⴹⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ.[115] ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴽⴹⴰⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵖⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵊⵊⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ.[116]

ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵉⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ.[117] ⴳ 2024, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 82% ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ, ⵜⴷⴷⵔ 53% ⴳ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴷⴷⴰⴱⵓ, ⵙⵖⴼ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵊⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ.[118] ⵜⵥⵕⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⴷⵍⵍⵉ ⵊⵊⵏⵊⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⴹⵕ GDP ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ 80% ⴳ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵏⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ.[119] ⵜⵍⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⵔⴽⵙⵏ, ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ GDP, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 80% ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⴼⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.[120][121] ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴽⵕⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ.[122] ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔ ⵓⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ [en] ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ [en]. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ, ⴱⴷⵔⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ. ⴰⵔ 2022, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 5% ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵣⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.[123]

ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ, ⵣⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵏ OPEC. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰ, ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵡⵍⵍⵊ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⴳⴷⵓⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ, ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1980 ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⴱⵣⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1990. ⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ 2001 ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵍⵉ ⴰⵖⵣⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⵉⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⵉⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⴽⵔⵉ ⴰⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⴷ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ.[124][125][126]

ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ, ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⴱⵣⴳ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⴳ 2003 ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⵉⴳ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴳⵯⵍ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⴳ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵡⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵔⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ.[127] ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵜⴳⵎⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ CADIVI, SITME, ⴷ DICOM ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴱⵖⵙ ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴽⴰⵏⵏ.[128]

ⵙⵔⴳⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵟⵟⴰⵕⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵔⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ 2014 ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ PDVSA, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⵣⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎ, ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ.[129] ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⵓⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵇⵇⵯⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⴽⵉⵎ 2016 ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵔⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ International Monetary Fund ⵉⵙ ⵜⵎⵍ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 1,000,000% ⴳ 2018, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ.[130]

ⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵜⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴳ 2008, 2018 ⴷ 2021, ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ 14 ⵉⴷ ⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵣⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕ.ref>"Venezuela redenominates currency again amid hyperinflation". Reuters. 1 October 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2024.</ref> ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵉⵅⵙⵔ ⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵉⴷ, ⵉⵙⵔ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ.[131]

ⴳⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴰⴱⵔⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵙ 30 ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ CLAP ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴹⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.[132]

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2010, ⵉⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ. ⵉⴹⵕ ⵓⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵃⵉ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ, ⵅⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴽⴰⵏ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⴰⵡⵏ.[133] ⵉⴽⵯⵎⵎⵛ GDP ⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 70% ⴳⵔ 2014 ⴷ 2021 — ⵉⴳ ⵓⴽⵯⵡⵎⵎⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵀⵔⵛⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ.[134]

ⵣⴳ 2019, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴷⵡⵍ ⴰⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ. ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵍⵡⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ, ⵜⴰⵊⵊ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵜⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏⵜ, ⵜⵥⵥⵉⴹⵕ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ 60% ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ.[135]

ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]

ⵜⵍⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴽⴰⴹ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 300 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵎⵉⵍ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ.[136] ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵏⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ.[5]

ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ PDVSA, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ 1976, ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ. ⵏⵜⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20.[137] ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ, ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ 1999, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ PDVSA ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵙⵙⵏ, ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵉⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ.[138]

ⵉⴹⵕ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 3.5 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ 1998 ⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 700,000 ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ 2020, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ, ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓ.[139] ⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ 2019 ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ, ⵙⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ PDVSA ⵖⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙⴳⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ, ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ CITGO.[140]

ⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ, ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ "barter" ⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⴹⵕⵏⵉⵏ.[141] ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ 2023 ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 850,000 ⵉⴱⵔⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.[142]

ⵜⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳ ⴳⵔ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ.[143]

ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]
  1. ^ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ "Marquer" (ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵛⵍⵃⵉⵢⵜ)
  2. ^ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ: progressive
  3. ^ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ: industrialisation
  4. ^ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ: austérité
  5. ^ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ: télécommunication
  6. ^ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ: loyal
  7. ^ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ: Settlers (ⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ)
  8. ^ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵜ: Temporary
  9. ^ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ: Due process
  10. ^ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ: Multipolar
  11. ^ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ: analysts
  12. ^ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ: testify (ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴳ)
  13. ^ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ: hyperinflation

ⵉⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ

[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]
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ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵙⴳ https://zgh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ&oldid=130177