ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ
| ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ | |
|---|---|
 | |
| ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ, atmophile element | |
| ⴰⴷⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ | nonmetal, noble gases, s-block  |
| ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ | period 1, noble gases |
| Has use | lifting gas, coolant, component, food additive |
| ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ | Helios |
| (ⵜ)ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵜ | Pierre Janssen, Joseph Norman Lockyer, William Ramsay |
| Time of discovery or invention | 18 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1868 |
| Conjugate acid | hydridohelium(1+) |
| Element symbol | He |
| Chemical formula | He |
| Canonical SMILES | [He] |
| Electron configuration | 1s² |
| Antiparticle | antihelium |
| By-product of | natural-gas processing |
| ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰ ⵙ | colorlessness, tastelessness, odorlessness, diamagnetism |
| ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⴽⵙⵜⵛⵉⵏⵊ | https://astronomy.stackexchange.com/tags/helium |
ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ - ⵙⵏⴼⵍ - ⵡⵉⴽⵉⴷⴰⵜⴰ  | |
ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ (ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ: Helium) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ He ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎ 2. ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵢⵏⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎ, ⴰⵔⴽⵍⵓ, ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⴹⵓ, ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵢ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰ, ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ. ⵜⵉⵇⵉⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⴱⵕ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ.
ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ (ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ), ⵉⴳ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 24% ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⴽⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵔⵓⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ. ⵜⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⵏⴱⴰⵍⴰ. ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎⵜ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ. ⵉⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ.
ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 18 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1868 ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⵉⵚ ⵊⵓⵍ ⵊⴰⵏⵙⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵎⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⴳⵓⵏⵜⵓⵔ, ⵍⵀⵏⴷ. ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵢⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ "ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ" ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ἥλιος (ⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵙ). ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1895, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵓⵎⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⵙⵉⵔ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵓⵣ ⵏ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⴰⵢⵜ.[1]
ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⴰⵙⴼⵓⴽⴽⵔ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵏ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ 18 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1868, ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵢⵓⵖⵜ 587.49 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ. ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⴷⵉ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⵉⵚ ⵊⵓⵍ ⵊⴰⵏⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵎⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⴳⵓⵏⵜⵓⵔ, ⵍⵀⵏⴷ.[2] ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵚⵓⴹⵢⵓⵎ. ⴳ 20 ⴽⵟⵓⴱⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵢⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ D₃ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵥ ⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵡⵏⵀⵓⴼⵔ D₁ ⴷ D₂ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ.[3] ⵉⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ. ⵍⵓⴽⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ "ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ" ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ἥλιος (helios).
ⴳ 26 ⵎⴰⵕⵚ 1895, ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⵙⵉⵔ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵓⵣ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⴰⵢⵜ (ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ 10% ⵙ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ) ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵖⵓⵣⵏ. ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⴳⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵉⴱⵔⵉⵜⵉⴽ, ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴳ D₃ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ.[4] ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⴽⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ. ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⴱⵉⵔ ⵜⵢⵓⴷⵓⵔ ⴽⵍⵉⴼ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵕⴰⵀⴰⵎ ⵍⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⴰⵢⵜ.
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ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴱⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ 1908 ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⵀⴰⵢⴽ ⴽⴰⵎⵔⵍⵉⵏⴳ ⵓⵏⵙ, ⵜⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⴽⵍⵓⴷ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ. ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵏⵏ. ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵍⵓⵏⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⴰⵍⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ.[5] ⵢⵓⵍⵍ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ 7%, ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵛⴽⵜ ⵏ 92%, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⴷ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⵉⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.
ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵢⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⵏ. ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵎⵉⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴼⴽ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ. ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵚⵍⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵔⵓⴷⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵢⴰⵍⵍⴼⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴹⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⵜⵔⵉ-ⴼⵓⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵕⵉⵕⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ.[6]
ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵉⴷⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ. ⵜⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕⵜ. ⵜⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵏ. ⵉⵎⴰ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-3, ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ.[7]
ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵥⵎⴰ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰ, ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵢⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ. ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ. ⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ. ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ.[8] ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵥⵎⴰ (ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⵓⵏⵏ) ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ. ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ-ⴰⵍⵜⵛⵉⵏⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⵉ-ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍ.
ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵔⵏ. ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⴱⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ 4.22 ⴽ (−268.93 °C). ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵚⵎⵎⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵍⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ 1908 ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⵀⴰⵢⴽ ⴽⴰⵎⵔⵍⵉⵏⴳ ⵓⵏⵙ.[9] ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ: ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ.
ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⴳⵔ 2.17 ⴽ ⴷ 4.22 ⴽ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏ, ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⵍⵓ, ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵔⵥ ⵏ 1.026. ⴷ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵕⴱⵓⵕ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵔⵖ. ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ 2.17 ⴽ (ⵜⴰⵇⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵍⴰⵎⴷⴰ), ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⵔⵃⵔⵓⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉ-ⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵔⵖⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵕⴱⵓⵕ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ, ⵢⴰⴳⵔ ⵙ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵙ; ⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ "ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵍⵉⵏ".
ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ. ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴹⴰⵕⵓⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵥⵉⵕⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵔⵓⵢ (0 ⴽ). ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ : ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵥⵉⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵙ.[10] ⵢⵓⵙⵔ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ 25 ⴱⴰⵕ (2.5 ⵎⴱⴰ) ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ 0.95 ⴽ. ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵙⴰⵙⵜ (BCC). ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴳⴰⵙⴰⵙ ⴰⵚⴹⵉⵚⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ (HCP) ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵙⴰⵙ ⴱⵓ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (FCC). ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ 0.187 ⴳ/ⵙⵎ³ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ 0 ⴽ ⴷ 48 ⵎⴱⴰ.
ⵉⴽⵏⵉⴷⴳⵏ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⴷⴳⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-3 (³He) ⴷ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 (⁴He) ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⵢⵏ. ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴽⵏⵉⴷⴳ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ 99.99986% ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ. ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-3 ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ (0.000137%).[11] ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵜⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.
ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ; ⵉⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵏ. ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⵙ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ (ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⵏ) ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ. ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-3 ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ. ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵛⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵜⵢⵓⵎ.[12]
ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ, ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ 23% ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⴽⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ.[13] ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ 1 ⴰⵔ 3 ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴱⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⵎⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏ-ⴰⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵓⴹⵜ CNO).
ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⵎⵎⵙ ⵏ 5.2 ⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵡⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ. ⵉⵣⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⵎⵎⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵔⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵎⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵡⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ. ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕⵜ. ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵢⵓⵎ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⴰⵢⵜ, ⴱⵉⵜⵛⴱⵍⵉⵏⴷ, ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⴰⵣⵉⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ (ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ) ⴳ ⵜⵔⵛⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ. ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⴰⵔ 7% ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵏⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ.
ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴰⵔ 7% ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ.[14] ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⴱⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴷⵎ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵣⴷⵔ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ. ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵡⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵚⵎⵎⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 169 ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ. ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎⵎⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ (78%), ⴷ ⴷⴷⵣⴰⵢⵔ (15%). ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵔⵏⵉⵏ.
ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵉⵏ. ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵚⵎⵉⴹ ⵉⵏⵖⴱⵉ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵚⵎⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵎⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵏⵉⵜⵜ (MRI), ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵏⵉⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ (NMR), ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵉⵎⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴳⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⴹⵕⵓⵏⵏ (LHC) ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵔⵏ.[15]
ⴰⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵍⵓⵏⵏ. ⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ 7%, ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ ⵜⵓⵜⵉ 92%. ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ.[16] ⵢⵉⴳⵓⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⴱⴰⵍⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ.
ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]- ⵜⴰⴹⴰⵕⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵕⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵍⵙⵜ: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵕⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴽⵓⵏ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ. ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵣⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉⴽⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ.[17]
- ⴰⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵙ: ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵙⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵚⵎⵉⴹ.
- ⴰⵏⴳⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴱⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⴽⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⴳⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴱⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵏⵏⵊ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴼⵙⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵍⵉⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⵙⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ.
- ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵢⵏ: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⴽⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵀⴰⵍ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ.
ⵜⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵍⵙⵜ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎⵎⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⴼⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ. ⴰⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ.[18]
ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵕⴹ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ "ⴰⴳⵕⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ". ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵕⴹ ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵎⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ. ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ. ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵚⵎⵎⵉⴹ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵎⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵎⵎⵉⴹ.
ⵉⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ
[ⵙⵏⴼⵍ | ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ]- ↑ "Helium". Royal Society of Chemistry.
- ↑ Kochhar, R. K. (1991). "French astronomers in India during the 17th–19th centuries". Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 101 (2): 95–100. Bibcode:1991JBAA..101...95K.
- ↑ "Norman Lockyer". Archived from the original on 2012-02-10.
- ↑ Ramsay, William (1895). "On a Gas Showing the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of D3 , One of the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 58: 113–117. doi:10.1098/rspl.1895.0015. JSTOR 115714.
- ↑ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford University Press. pp. 175–179. ISBN 978-0-19-850341-5.
- ↑ Woodgate, G. K. (1983). Elementary Atomic Structure. Oxford University Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-19-851156-4.
- ↑ "The Alpha Particle". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
- ↑ Lide, D. R. (2005). CRC (ed.). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 4–142. ISBN 978-0-8493-0486-6.
- ↑ van Delft, Dirk (2008). "Little machine, big science: The Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences' Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory". History of Science. 46 (4): 455. doi:10.1177/007327530804600404.
- ↑ McMahon, J. M.; Morales, M. A.; Pierleoni, C.; Ceperley, D. M. (2012). "The properties of hydrogen and helium under extreme conditions". Reviews of Modern Physics. 84 (4): 1607–1653. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.84.1607.
- ↑ "Isotopes of helium". WebElements.
- ↑ Novikov, D. D. (1988). "Primordial helium abundance and the number of neutrino families". Soviet Astronomy Letters. 14: 95.
- ↑ "CNO Cycle". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University.
- ↑ "Helium" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. 2004.
- ↑ "Applications of Helium". American Gas Specialty.
- ↑ "Why do blimps use helium instead of hydrogen?". Airships.net.
- ↑ Stwertka, Albert (1998). A Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. pp. 24. ISBN 978-0-19-508083-4.
- ↑ "Inhaling Helium Can Be Deadly". Nationwide Children's Hospital.
- ⴰⵙⴳⵣⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ(ⵙ.ⴳ.ⵙ.ⵎ) : ⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ (ⵎ.ⵎ.ⵙ.ⵎ)
| →↓ | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | |
| 1 | 1 H |
2 He | |||||||||||||||||
| 2 | 3 Li |
4 Be |
5 B |
6 C |
7 N |
8 O |
9 F |
10 Ne | |||||||||||
| 3 | 11 Na |
12 Mg |
13 Al |
14 Si |
15 P |
16 S |
17 Cl |
18 Ar | |||||||||||
| 4 | 19 K |
20 Ca |
21 Sc |
22 Ti |
23 V |
24 Cr |
25 Mn |
26 Fe |
27 Co |
28 Ni |
29 Cu |
30 Zn |
31 Ga |
32 Ge |
33 As |
34 Se |
35 Br |
36 Kr | |
| 5 | 37 Rb |
38 Sr |
39 Y |
40 Zr |
41 Nb |
42 Mo |
43 Tc |
44 Ru |
45 Rh |
46 Pd |
47 Ag |
48 Cd |
49 In |
50 Sn |
51 Sb |
52 Te |
53 I |
54 Xe | |
| 6 | 55 Cs |
56 Ba |
* |
71 Lu |
72 Hf |
73 Ta |
74 W |
75 Re |
76 Os |
77 Ir |
78 Pt |
79 Au |
80 Hg |
81 Tl |
82 Pb |
83 Bi |
84 Po |
85 At |
86 Rn |
| 7 | 87 Fr |
88 Ra |
* * |
103 Lr |
104 Rf |
105 Db |
106 Sg |
107 Bh |
110 Ds |
111 Rg |
112 Cn |
113 Nh |
114 Fl |
115 Mc |
116 Lv |
117 Ts |
118 Og | ||
| ↓ | |||||||||||||||||||
| Lanthanides | * |
57 La |
58 Ce |
59 Pr |
60 Nd |
61 Pm |
62 Sm |
63 Eu |
64 Gd |
65 Tb |
66 Dy |
67 Ho |
68 Er |
69 Tm |
70 Yb |
||||
| Actinides | * * |
89 Ac |
90 Th |
91 Pa |
92 U |
93 Np |
94 Pu |
95 Am |
96 Cm |
97 Bk |
98 Cf |
99 Es |
100 Fm |
101 Md |
102 No |
||||
| ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ | |
|---|---|
| ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ | |
| ⵥⵕ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ | |
