ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ

ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ
ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ, atmophile element
ⴰⴷⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ	nonmetal, noble gases, s-block
ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ	period 1, noble gases
Has use	lifting gas, coolant, component, food additive
ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ	Helios
Discoverer or inventor	Pierre Janssen, Joseph Norman Lockyer, William Ramsay
Time of discovery or invention	18 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1868
Conjugate acid	hydridohelium(1+)
Element symbol	He
Chemical formula	He
Canonical SMILES	[He]
Electron configuration	1s²
Antiparticle	anti-helium
By-product of	natural-gas processing
ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰ ⵙ	colorlessness, tastelessness, odorlessness
ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⴽⵙⵜⵛⵉⵏⵊ	https://astronomy.stackexchange.com/tags/helium
	ⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ - ⵙⵏⴼⵍ - ⵡⵉⴽⵉⴷⴰⵜⴰ

ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ (ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ: Helium) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ He ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎ 2. ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵢⵏⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎ, ⴰⵔⴽⵍⵓ, ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⴹⵓ, ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵢ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰ, ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ. ⵜⵉⵇⵉⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⴱⵕ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ.

ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ (ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ), ⵉⴳ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 24% ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⴽⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵔⵓⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ. ⵜⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⵏⴱⴰⵍⴰ. ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎⵜ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ. ⵉⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 18 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1868 ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⵉⵚ ⵊⵓⵍ ⵊⴰⵏⵙⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵎⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⴳⵓⵏⵜⵓⵔ, ⵍⵀⵏⴷ. ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵢⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ "ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ" ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ἥλιος (ⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵙ). ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1895, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵓⵎⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⵙⵉⵔ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵓⵣ ⵏ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⴰⵢⵜ.^[1]

ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ

ⴰⵙⴼⵓⴽⴽⵔ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵏ

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ 18 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1868, ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵢⵓⵖⵜ 587.49 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ. ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⴷⵉ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⵉⵚ ⵊⵓⵍ ⵊⴰⵏⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵎⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⴳⵓⵏⵜⵓⵔ, ⵍⵀⵏⴷ.^[2] ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵚⵓⴹⵢⵓⵎ. ⴳ 20 ⴽⵟⵓⴱⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵢⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ D₃ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵥ ⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵡⵏⵀⵓⴼⵔ D₁ ⴷ D₂ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ.^[3] ⵉⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ. ⵍⵓⴽⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ "ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ" ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ἥλιος (helios).

ⴳ 26 ⵎⴰⵕⵚ 1895, ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⵙⵉⵔ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵓⵣ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⴰⵢⵜ (ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ 10% ⵙ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ) ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵖⵓⵣⵏ. ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⴳⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵉⴱⵔⵉⵜⵉⴽ, ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴳ D₃ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ.^[4] ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⴽⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ. ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⴱⵉⵔ ⵜⵢⵓⴷⵓⵔ ⴽⵍⵉⴼ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵕⴰⵀⴰⵎ ⵍⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⴰⵢⵜ.

ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ

ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴱⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ 1908 ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⵀⴰⵢⴽ ⴽⴰⵎⵔⵍⵉⵏⴳ ⵓⵏⵙ, ⵜⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⴽⵍⵓⴷ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ. ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵏⵏ. ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵍⵓⵏⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⴰⵍⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ.^[5] ⵢⵓⵍⵍ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ 7%, ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵛⴽⵜ ⵏ 92%, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⴷ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⵉⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.

ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ

ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ

ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵢⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⵏ. ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵎⵉⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴼⴽ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ. ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵚⵍⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵔⵓⴷⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵢⴰⵍⵍⴼⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴹⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⵜⵔⵉ-ⴼⵓⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵕⵉⵕⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ.^[6]

ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ

ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵉⴷⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ. ⵜⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕⵜ. ⵜⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵏ. ⵉⵎⴰ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-3, ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ.^[7]

ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵥⵎⴰ

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰ, ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵢⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ. ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ. ⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ. ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ.^[8] ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵥⵎⴰ (ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⵓⵏⵏ) ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ. ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ-ⴰⵍⵜⵛⵉⵏⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⵉ-ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍ.

ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ

ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵔⵏ. ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⴱⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ 4.22 ⴽ (−268.93 °C). ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵚⵎⵎⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵍⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ 1908 ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉ ⵀⴰⵢⴽ ⴽⴰⵎⵔⵍⵉⵏⴳ ⵓⵏⵙ.^[9] ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ: ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ.

ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⴳⵔ 2.17 ⴽ ⴷ 4.22 ⴽ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏ, ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⵍⵓ, ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵔⵥ ⵏ 1.026. ⴷ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵕⴱⵓⵕ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵔⵖ. ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ 2.17 ⴽ (ⵜⴰⵇⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵍⴰⵎⴷⴰ), ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⵔⵃⵔⵓⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉ-ⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵔⵖⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵕⴱⵓⵕ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ, ⵢⴰⴳⵔ ⵙ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵙ; ⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ "ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵍⵉⵏ".

ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ. ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴹⴰⵕⵓⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵥⵉⵕⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵔⵓⵢ (0 ⴽ). ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵡⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ : ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵥⵉⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵙ.^[10] ⵢⵓⵙⵔ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ 25 ⴱⴰⵕ (2.5 ⵎⴱⴰ) ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ 0.95 ⴽ. ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵙⴰⵙⵜ (BCC). ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵜⵓⵥⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴳⴰⵙⴰⵙ ⴰⵚⴹⵉⵚⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ (HCP) ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵙⴰⵙ ⴱⵓ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (FCC). ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ 0.187 ⴳ/ⵙⵎ³ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ 0 ⴽ ⴷ 48 ⵎⴱⴰ.

ⵉⴽⵏⵉⴷⴳⵏ

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⴷⴳⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-3 (³He) ⴷ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 (⁴He) ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⵢⵏ. ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴽⵏⵉⴷⴳ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ 99.99986% ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ. ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-3 ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ (0.000137%).^[11] ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵜⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ; ⵉⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵏ. ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-4 ⵙ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ (ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⵏ) ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰ. ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ-3 ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ. ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵛⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵜⵢⵓⵎ.^[12]

ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ

ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ, ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ 23% ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⴽⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ.^[13] ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ 1 ⴰⵔ 3 ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴱⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⵎⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏ-ⴰⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵓⴹⵜ CNO).

ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⵎⵎⵙ ⵏ 5.2 ⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵡⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ. ⵉⵣⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⵎⵎⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵔⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵎⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵡⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ. ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕⵜ. ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵢⵓⵎ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⴰⵢⵜ, ⴱⵉⵜⵛⴱⵍⵉⵏⴷ, ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⴰⵣⵉⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ (ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ) ⴳ ⵜⵔⵛⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ. ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⴰⵔ 7% ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵏⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ.

ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ

ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴰⵔ 7% ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ.^[14] ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⴱⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴷⵎ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵣⴷⵔ ⵜⵔⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ. ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵡⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵚⵎⵎⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 169 ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ. ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎⵎⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ (78%), ⴷ ⴷⴷⵣⴰⵢⵔ (15%). ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵔⵏⵉⵏ.

ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ

ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵉⵏ. ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵚⵎⵉⴹ ⵉⵏⵖⴱⵉ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵚⵎⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵎⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵏⵉⵜⵜ (MRI), ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵖⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵏⵉⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ (NMR), ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵉⵎⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴳⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⴹⵕⵓⵏⵏ (LHC) ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵔⵏ.^[15]

ⴰⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵍⵓⵏⵏ. ⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ 7%, ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵍⵍ ⵜⵓⵜⵉ 92%. ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ.^[16] ⵢⵉⴳⵓⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⴱⴰⵍⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ.

ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ

ⵜⴰⴹⴰⵕⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵕⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵍⵙⵜ: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵕⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴽⵓⵏ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ. ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵣⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉⴽⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ.^[17]
ⴰⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵙ: ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵙⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵚⵎⵉⴹ.
ⴰⵏⴳⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴱⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⴽⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⴳⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴱⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵏⵏⵊ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴼⵙⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵍⵉⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⵙⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ.
ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵢⵏ: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⴽⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵀⴰⵍ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ.

ⵜⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵍⵙⵜ

ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎⵎⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⴼⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ. ⴰⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ.^[18]

ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵕⴹ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ "ⴰⴳⵕⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ". ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵕⴹ ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵎⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ. ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ. ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵚⵎⵎⵉⴹ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵎⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵎⵎⵉⴹ.

ⵉⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ

^ "Helium". Royal Society of Chemistry.
^ Kochhar, R. K. (1991). "French astronomers in India during the 17th–19th centuries". Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 101 (2): 95–100. Bibcode:1991JBAA..101...95K.
^ "Norman Lockyer". Archived from the original on 2012-02-10.
^ Ramsay, William (1895). "On a Gas Showing the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of D3 , One of the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 58: 113–117. doi:10.1098/rspl.1895.0015. JSTOR 115714.
^ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford University Press. pp. 175–179. ISBN 978-0-19-850341-5.
^ Woodgate, G. K. (1983). Elementary Atomic Structure. Oxford University Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-19-851156-4.
^ "The Alpha Particle". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
^ Lide, D. R. (2005). CRC (ed.). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 4–142. ISBN 978-0-8493-0486-6.
^ van Delft, Dirk (2008). "Little machine, big science: The Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences' Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory". History of Science. 46 (4): 455. doi:10.1177/007327530804600404.
^ McMahon, J. M.; Morales, M. A.; Pierleoni, C.; Ceperley, D. M. (2012). "The properties of hydrogen and helium under extreme conditions". Reviews of Modern Physics. 84 (4): 1607–1653. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.84.1607.
^ "Isotopes of helium". WebElements.
^ Novikov, D. D. (1988). "Primordial helium abundance and the number of neutrino families". Soviet Astronomy Letters. 14: 95.
^ "CNO Cycle". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University.
^ "Helium" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. 2004.
^ "Applications of Helium". American Gas Specialty.
^ "Why do blimps use helium instead of hydrogen?". Airships.net.
^ Stwertka, Albert (1998). A Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-19-508083-4.
^ "Inhaling Helium Can Be Deadly". Nationwide Children's Hospital.

ⴰⵙⴳⵣⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ(ⵙ.ⴳ.ⵙ.ⵎ) : ⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ (ⵎ.ⵎ.ⵙ.ⵎ)

**ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ**
→↓	1	2		3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18
1	1 H																		2 He
2	3 Li	4 Be												5 B	6 C	7 N	8 O	9 F	10 Ne
3	11 Na	12 Mg												13 Al	14 Si	15 P	16 S	17 Cl	18 Ar
4	19 K	20 Ca		21 Sc	22 Ti	23 V	24 Cr	25 Mn	26 Fe	27 Co	28 Ni	29 Cu	30 Zn	31 Ga	32 Ge	33 As	34 Se	35 Br	36 Kr
5	37 Rb	38 Sr		39 Y	40 Zr	41 Nb	42 Mo	43 Tc	44 Ru	45 Rh	46 Pd	47 Ag	48 Cd	49 In	50 Sn	51 Sb	52 Te	53 I	54 Xe
6	55 Cs	56 Ba	*	71 Lu	72 Hf	73 Ta	74 W	75 Re	76 Os	77 Ir	78 Pt	79 Au	80 Hg	81 Tl	82 Pb	83 Bi	84 Po	85 At	86 Rn
7	87 Fr	88 Ra	* *	103 Lr	104 Rf	105 Db	106 Sg	107 Bh	110 Ds	111 Rg	112 Cn	113 Nh	114 Fl	115 Mc	116 Lv	117 Ts	118 Og
			↓
Lanthanides			*	57 La	58 Ce	59 Pr	60 Nd	61 Pm	62 Sm	63 Eu	64 Gd	65 Tb	66 Dy	67 Ho	68 Er	69 Tm	70 Yb
Actinides			* *	89 Ac	90 Th	91 Pa	92 U	93 Np	94 Pu	95 Am	96 Cm	97 Bk	98 Cf	99 Es	100 Fm	101 Md	102 No

[1] "Helium". Royal Society of Chemistry.

[2] Kochhar, R. K. (1991). "French astronomers in India during the 17th–19th centuries". Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 101 (2): 95–100. Bibcode:1991JBAA..101...95K.

[3] "Norman Lockyer". Archived from the original on 2012-02-10.

[4] Ramsay, William (1895). "On a Gas Showing the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of D3 , One of the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 58: 113–117. doi:10.1098/rspl.1895.0015. JSTOR 115714.

[5] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford University Press. pp. 175–179. ISBN 978-0-19-850341-5.

[6] Woodgate, G. K. (1983). Elementary Atomic Structure. Oxford University Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-19-851156-4.

[7] "The Alpha Particle". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

[8] Lide, D. R. (2005). CRC (ed.). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 4–142. ISBN 978-0-8493-0486-6.

[9] van Delft, Dirk (2008). "Little machine, big science: The Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences' Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory". History of Science. 46 (4): 455. doi:10.1177/007327530804600404.

[10] McMahon, J. M.; Morales, M. A.; Pierleoni, C.; Ceperley, D. M. (2012). "The properties of hydrogen and helium under extreme conditions". Reviews of Modern Physics. 84 (4): 1607–1653. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.84.1607.

[11] "Isotopes of helium". WebElements.

[12] Novikov, D. D. (1988). "Primordial helium abundance and the number of neutrino families". Soviet Astronomy Letters. 14: 95.

[13] "CNO Cycle". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University.

[14] "Helium" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. 2004.

[15] "Applications of Helium". American Gas Specialty.

[16] "Why do blimps use helium instead of hydrogen?". Airships.net.

[17] Stwertka, Albert (1998). A Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-19-508083-4.

[18] "Inhaling Helium Can Be Deadly". Nationwide Children's Hospital.

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